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Papers that changed AI, with a plain-language explainer for each.
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- 2021
Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code (Codex / HumanEval)
arXiv
A 2021 paper from OpenAI introduces Codex, a GPT model fine-tuned on public GitHub code, and HumanEval, an evaluation set that judges generated Python programs by whether they work rather than by how closely they match a reference.
- 2020
The Pile: An 800GB Dataset of Diverse Text for Language Modeling
arXiv
The Pile is an 825 GiB English text dataset of 22 combined sources, released by EleutherAI on 31 December 2020 with an arXiv paper. It became the training data for several of the group's open models.
- 2019
Mastering Atari, Go, chess and shogi by planning with a learned model
Nature
MuZero is a DeepMind reinforcement-learning algorithm that learns a model of its environment and plans inside that model, mastering Atari, Go, chess and shogi without being given the rules of those games.
- 2019
C4: Colossal Clean Crawled Corpus (T5 paper)
JMLR
A 2019 paper that casts every language task as text-to-text, systematically compares transfer-learning choices, releases the C4 corpus and models, and reports state-of-the-art results on summarization, question answering, and classification.
- 2019
Exploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformer (T5)
JMLR
A 2019 Google paper that frames every language task as text in, text out, using one encoder-decoder Transformer and one training setup. It also introduced the C4 dataset, and the released T5 models became common research starting points.
- 2019
SuperGLUE: A Stickier Benchmark for General-Purpose Language Understanding Systems
arXiv
SuperGLUE is a benchmark for general-purpose language understanding, released in 2019 as a harder successor to GLUE. It bundles eight tasks, a single-number metric, an analysis toolkit and a public leaderboard.
- 2018
Neural Ordinary Differential Equations
arXiv
A 2018 paper by Chen, Rubanova, Bettencourt and Duvenaud that replaces a fixed sequence of hidden layers with a neural network describing the derivative of the hidden state, so outputs are computed by an ODE solver — yielding continuous-depth models with constant memory cost.[^1]
- 2018
GLUE: A Multi-Task Benchmark and Analysis Platform for Natural Language Understanding
arXiv
GLUE is a benchmark and analysis platform that evaluates natural language understanding models across a diverse set of existing tasks, with an online comparison platform and a hand-crafted diagnostic suite for linguistic analysis.
- 2018
Group Normalization
arXiv
Group Normalization is a 2018 paper by Yuxin Wu and Kaiming He that proposes normalizing channels in groups, independent of batch size, to address batch normalization's weakness when batches are small.
- 2017
A general reinforcement learning algorithm that masters chess, shogi, and Go through self-play
Science
A 2017 arXiv paper, later published in Science, reporting that a single self-play reinforcement learning algorithm, AlphaZero, mastered chess, shogi and Go and beat strong specialised programs in each.
- 2017
mixup: Beyond Empirical Risk Minimization
arXiv
mixup is a training principle from a 2017 paper by Zhang, Cisse, Dauphin and Lopez-Paz that trains networks on convex combinations of pairs of examples and their labels, improving generalisation on image, speech and tabular benchmarks.
- 2017
Mastering the game of Go without human knowledge
Nature
AlphaGo Zero learned Go only by playing against itself, starting from random play, and beat the earlier champion-defeating AlphaGo 100 games to 0 after three days of training. The Nature paper appeared in October 2017.
- 2017
Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithms
arXiv
A 2017 paper by Schulman, Wolski, Dhariwal, Radford and Klimov that introduced proximal policy optimization (PPO), a reinforcement learning method that is much simpler to implement and tune and became OpenAI's default RL algorithm.
- 2016
SQuAD: 100,000+ Questions for Machine Comprehension of Text
arXiv
SQuAD is a reading-comprehension dataset of more than 100,000 crowdworker questions on Wikipedia articles, each answered by a span of its passage. Released in 2016, it gave machine comprehension a large, freely available benchmark with a measured human ceiling.
- 2016
Identity Mappings in Deep Residual Networks
arXiv
A 2016 analysis of residual networks arguing that with identity skip connections and the activation placed after addition, signals travel directly between blocks; a new residual unit built on this eases training, and a 1001-layer network reaches 4.62% error on CIFAR-10.
- 2015
Batch Normalization: Accelerating Deep Network Training by Reducing Internal Covariate Shift
arXiv
A 2015 paper by Sergey Ioffe and Christian Szegedy that proposed normalising each layer's inputs per training mini-batch, which allowed higher learning rates, looser initialisation and much faster training of deep networks.
- 2015
Deep learning
Nature
A 2015 Nature review by Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio and Geoffrey Hinton explaining deep learning: models of multiple processing layers that learn layered representations of data, and the results this produced in speech, vision and other fields.
- 2014
Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization
arXiv (ICLR 2015)
Adam is a stochastic optimisation algorithm from a 2014 paper by Diederik P. Kingma and Jimmy Ba that sets per-parameter step sizes from running estimates of the gradient's first and second moments, needing little memory and little hyper-parameter tuning.
- 2014
Deep Speech: Scaling up end-to-end speech recognition
arXiv
A 2014 paper presenting an end-to-end deep-learning speech recognition system that removes hand-engineered noise modules and the phoneme dictionary, relying instead on recurrent networks trained across multiple GPUs and synthesized data.
- 2014
GloVe: Global Vectors for Word Representation
EMNLP 2014
GloVe is a 2014 method that learns word vectors by factorising global word co-occurrence counts. Released together with pre-trained vectors, it became, alongside word2vec, one of the two standard ways of producing static word embeddings.