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Papers that changed AI, with a plain-language explainer for each.
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- 1982
Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities
PNAS
A 1982 paper by John J. Hopfield showing that large networks of simple neuron-like units can collectively store and recall memories. It became known as the Hopfield network, and the work was recognised by the 2024 Nobel Prize in Physics.
- 1982
Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities
PNAS
A 1982 paper by John J. Hopfield arguing that useful computation can emerge as a collective property of many simple, equivalent units, and describing a model whose collective behaviour gives content-addressable memory, generalisation and error correction.
- 1969
Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry
A 1969 book by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert that proved mathematical limits on what single-layer perceptrons can compute — notably that they cannot compute parity or connectedness — and has long been credited with steering research away from neural networks.
- 1966
ELIZA - A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication Between Man and Machine
Communications of the ACM 9(1)
A January 1966 paper by Joseph Weizenbaum presenting ELIZA, a program on MIT's MAC time-sharing system that used keyword-triggered decomposition and reassembly rules to enable certain natural-language conversations between people and computers.
- 1959
Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers
IJRD
A. L. Samuel's 1959 paper reporting experiments in which a checkers program, given only the rules of the game and an imperfect set of parameters, learned in 8 to 10 hours of playing time to beat the person who wrote it.
- 1948
A Mathematical Theory of Communication
Bell System Technical Journal 27
C. E. Shannon's 1948 paper set out a mathematical framework for communication, defining information in bits, channel capacity, and entropy, and treating messages statistically while setting aside semantic meaning.