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Papers that changed AI, with a plain-language explainer for each.
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- 2026
GLM-5: from Vibe Coding to Agentic Engineering
arXiv
Zhipu's GLM-5 report describes a 744-billion-parameter mixture-of-experts model built on sparse attention and asynchronous reinforcement learning, aimed at moving AI-assisted programming from vibe coding toward agentic engineering.
- 2026
Terminal-Bench: Benchmarking Agents on Hard, Realistic Tasks in Command Line Interfaces
arXiv
Terminal-Bench 2.0 is a curated benchmark of 89 hard tasks carried out in computer terminal environments, built to measure how well AI agents handle realistic command-line work; frontier models and agents score below 65% on it.
- 2025
ARC-AGI-2: A New Challenge for Frontier AI Reasoning Systems
arXiv
A 2025 paper introducing ARC-AGI-2, a benchmark of input-output puzzle tasks built to measure abstract reasoning in frontier AI systems, with human testing as a baseline and a task set designed to give a more granular signal of progress.
- 2024
LiveCodeBench: Holistic and Contamination Free Evaluation of Large Language Models for Code
arXiv
A benchmark for code LLMs that keeps collecting fresh contest problems from LeetCode, AtCoder and CodeForces, so that scores reflect ability rather than memorised test data, and that also tests code repair and execution reasoning.
- 2023
SWE-bench: Can Language Models Resolve Real-World GitHub Issues?
arXiv
A benchmark of 2,294 real software engineering problems taken from GitHub issues and the pull requests that resolved them, in which a model must edit a codebase to fix an issue; on release the best model solved under 2% of them.
- 2022
Learning skillful medium-range global weather forecasting
Science
GraphCast is a graph neural network trained on four decades of reanalysis data that produces 10-day global weather forecasts at 0.25 degree resolution in under a minute, outperforming the leading operational deterministic systems on most verification targets.
- 2022
Magnetic control of tokamak plasmas through deep reinforcement learning
Nature
A 2022 Nature paper by Degrave, Felici and colleagues showing that a deep reinforcement learning controller can learn on its own to command all of a tokamak's magnetic control coils, producing and holding a range of plasma shapes.
- 2021
Program Synthesis with Large Language Models (MBPP)
arXiv
A 2021 arXiv paper by Austin, Odena, Nye and eight other authors that introduced MBPP, a benchmark of 974 short Python programming tasks, and measured how language models from 244M to 137B parameters turn natural-language descriptions into working code.
- 2021
Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code (Codex / HumanEval)
arXiv
A 2021 paper from OpenAI introduces Codex, a GPT model fine-tuned on public GitHub code, and HumanEval, an evaluation set that judges generated Python programs by whether they work rather than by how closely they match a reference.
- 2020
NeRF: Representing Scenes as Neural Radiance Fields for View Synthesis
arXiv
A 2020 paper by Mildenhall, Srinivasan, Tancik, Barron, Ramamoorthi and Ng that represents a scene as a neural radiance field: a network mapping 5D coordinates to density and colour, optimized from a sparse set of images with known camera poses.
- 2019
Mastering Atari, Go, chess and shogi by planning with a learned model
Nature
MuZero is a DeepMind reinforcement-learning algorithm that learns a model of its environment and plans inside that model, mastering Atari, Go, chess and shogi without being given the rules of those games.
- 2019
On the Measure of Intelligence (ARC-AGI)
arXiv
A 2019 paper by Francois Chollet that defines intelligence as skill-acquisition efficiency and introduces the Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC), a benchmark of grid tasks that assumes no specialised knowledge or language.
- 2017
A general reinforcement learning algorithm that masters chess, shogi, and Go through self-play
Science
A 2017 arXiv paper, later published in Science, reporting that a single self-play reinforcement learning algorithm, AlphaZero, mastered chess, shogi and Go and beat strong specialised programs in each.
- 2012
Large Scale Distributed Deep Networks
NeurIPS
A 2012 NIPS paper by Jeffrey Dean, Andrew Ng and colleagues that introduced DistBelief, a framework for training deep networks across clusters of thousands of machines, together with the Downpour SGD and Sandblaster optimisation procedures.
- 1999
The PageRank Citation Ranking: Bringing Order to the Web
Brin and Page's PageRank technical report treats hyperlinks as citations to rank web pages and was used to build Google's search engine; it is one of the heavily cited papers on their early work.
- 1998
The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine
A 1998 conference paper by Sergey Brin and Lawrence Page describing PageRank, an algorithm that ranks web pages by the number and quality of links pointing to them, and the search engine built on that algorithm.
- 1990
Elephants Don't Play Chess
Rodney Brooks's 1990 paper argued for building artificial intelligence from the ground up, with ongoing physical interaction with the environment as the main constraint on design, rather than through the abstract manipulation of symbols that had dominated the field for roughly thirty years.