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Papers that changed AI, with a plain-language explainer for each.
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- 1969
Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry
A 1969 book by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert that proved mathematical limits on what single-layer perceptrons can compute — notably that they cannot compute parity or connectedness — and has long been credited with steering research away from neural networks.
- 1966
ELIZA - A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication Between Man and Machine
Communications of the ACM 9(1)
A January 1966 paper by Joseph Weizenbaum presenting ELIZA, a program on MIT's MAC time-sharing system that used keyword-triggered decomposition and reassembly rules to enable certain natural-language conversations between people and computers.
- 1961
Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence
Proceedings of the IRE 49(1)
Marvin Minsky's 1961 survey in Proceedings of the IRE organized heuristic programming into five problem areas — search, pattern recognition, learning, planning and induction — and argued that machines would need to build models of their environments.
- 1959
Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers
IJRD
A. L. Samuel's 1959 paper reporting experiments in which a checkers program, given only the rules of the game and an imperfect set of parameters, learned in 8 to 10 hours of playing time to beat the person who wrote it.
- 1959
Programs with Common Sense
PSMTPNPL
John McCarthy's 1959 paper proposing the advice taker, a program that would solve problems by manipulating sentences in formal languages and act when it deduced an imperative — an early statement of logical AI.
- 1950
Computing Machinery and Intelligence
Mind
In 1950 Alan Turing replaced the question "Can machines think?" with the imitation game, now called the Turing test, and answered the main objections to machine intelligence one by one.
- 1943
A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity
Bull. Math. Biophys.
In 1943 Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts described a simplified model of a neuron and showed that networks of such units can carry out logical reasoning, an early link between brain models and computation.
- 1936
On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem
Proc. London Math. Soc.
Alan Turing's 1936 paper defined computable numbers through an abstract machine, now called the Turing machine, and showed that no general method can decide whether any given mathematical statement is provable.